Idioma vietnamita
Keywords: Idioma vietnamita, 1591, 1660, ASCII, Alemania, Australia, Camboya, Canadá, China
El vietnamita (tiếng Việt, tiếng Việt Nam, o Việt ngữ), un idioma tonal, es el idioma nacional y oficial de Vietnam (Việt Nam). Es la lengua de los vietnamitas (người Việt o người kinh), que constituyen alrededor de 87% de la población de Vietnam y de más o menos dos millones de emigrantes vietnamitas, incluyendo una gran parte de los vietnamita-norteamericanos. Se habla como segundo idioma por la población minoritaria de Vietnam. Aunque contiene mucho vocabulario proveniente del chino, y al principio se escribía usando los ideogramas chinos, es considerado por lingüistas como una lengua austroasiática. Es la que tiene el mayor número de hablantes: tiene diez veces más que el idioma siguiente, el camboyano. El vietnamita actualmente usa el alfabeto latino (con muchos diacríticos) para escribir.
| Vietnamese (Tiếng Việt) | |
|---|---|
| Se habla en: | Vietnam, EE.UU., Camboya, y varios otros países |
| Total de hablantes: | 77 millones |
| Clasificación: | 14 |
| Familia lingüística: | austrosiática Mon-jmer |
| Estatus oficial | |
| Lengua oficial: | Vietnam |
| Regulado por: | - |
| Código lingüístico | |
| ISO 639-1 | vi |
| ISO 639-2 | vie |
| SIL | VIE |
| Tabla de contenidos |
Familia lingüística
El vietnamita pertenece a la familia viet-muong de la familia mon-khmer de la familia austroasiática, una familia que también incluye al camboyano, que se habla en Camboya, y varios idiomas tribales y regionales, como los idiomas mundas, que se hablan en la India del nordeste, y otros más en China del sur y la península malaya.
Más generalmente, como parte de la familia austroasiática, el vietnamita se considera como parte de la superfamilia áustrica (que también incluye las lenguas austronesias como el malayo, el cham, el malgache, el maorí, y el hawaiano), aunque se disputado la clasificación de la superfamilia áustrica.
Historia
Es probable que en el pasado distante el vietnamita haya compartido más características con los otros idiomas de la familia austroasiática, como una morfología inflexional y una variedad más rica de grupos consonánticos, pero estos rasgos actualmente han desaparecido del idioma. Sin embargo, el vietnamita ha sido muy influido por su situación en el sprachbund de Asia del sudeste, con el resultado de que adquirido características como la morfología aislante y la tonogénesis. Estas características, aunque podrían haber existido en el idioma proto-australasiático, han llegado a ser una de las varias idiomas no relacionado filológicamente de Asia del sudeste. Por ejemplo, el tailandés (una de las idiomas tai-kadai), el tsat (un miembro de la familia malayo-polinesia dentro de la austronesia), y el vietnamita desarollaron tonos como característica fonémica, aunque sus idiomas ancestrales no eran tonales originariamente.
El antepasado de la idioma vietnamita al primerio estaba basada en la región de la Río Rojo en lo que hoy es Vietnam del norte, y durante la exapansión posterior de la idioma y gente vietnamita en lo que hoy es Vietnam central y Vietnam del sur (por la conquista de el reino antiguo Champa y la gente camboyana de la delta Mekong, en la vecinidad de Saigon/Ciudad de Ho Chi Minh en el presente), el vietnamita fue influido lingüísticamente por las idiomas indias y malayo-polinesias al principio, hasta que el chino llega a dominar politicamente hacia el medio del primer milenio antes de Cristo.
Con la dominación político chino viene la importación radical del vocabulario y la influencia gramatical chino. Porque el chino fue, durante un período prolongado, la sólo idioma de la literatura y el gobierno, y también la idioma principal de la clase dirigente en Vietnam, mucho del léxico vietnamita consista con hán việt, las palabras derivado por el chino. De hecho, mientras que la idioma vernáculo de Vietnam gradualmente creció en prestigio hacia el principio del segundo milenio, el vietnamita se escribe usando los carácteres chinos (ver chữ nôm) que se adaptas para escribir en vietnamita, como en Japón (ver Kanji), Corea, y otros países del esfera cultural chino.
Mientras el contacto con el Occidente creció, la sistema quốc ngữ de escritura romanizado fue desarollado en el siglo XVII por los portugueses y los otros europeos envuelto en la convertición y el comerio en Vietnam. Sin embargo, el escritura romanizado no venió a dominar hasta el principio del siglo XX, cuando la educación llegó a ser difundido y se descubrió lo que una sistema de escritura más sencillo sea más conveniente para la educación y la comunicación con la población en general.
Distribución geográfico
Según el Ethnologue, se habla el vietnamita en la Australia, la Camboya, el Canadá, el China, la Costa de Marfil, la Finlandia, la Francia, la Alemania, Laos, la Martinica, los Países Bajos, la Nueva Caledonia, Noruega, las Filipinas, Senegal, Tailandia, el Reino Unido, EE.UU., y Vanuatu.
Estatus oficial
El vietnamita es la idioma oficial de Vietnam.
Dialectos
Hay varios dialectos inteligible mutuamente (algunes más inteligible de las demás). Los tres dialectos principales son:
| Nombre moderno | Nombre de región | Nombre anterior |
|---|---|---|
| Vietnamita del norte | Dialecto de Hanoi | Tonkinés |
| Vietnamita central | Dialecto de Huế | Alto anamés |
| Vietnamita del sur | Dialecto de Saigon | cochinchino |
Estos dialectos son un poco distinto de tono, aunque el dialecto de Huế es marcadamente diferente que los demás. Los tonos hỏi y ngã son más distinto en el dialecto del norte que en el del sur.
Sonidos
Los vocales
Los monoptongos
El tabla de los monoptongos (los vocales sencillas) abajo es un compuesto de los descripciones fonéticos de Nguyễn (1997), Thompson (1965), y Han (1966). (Ve los apuntos al fin para sus descripciones.)¹ Esa es una descripcion sobre los vocales del vietnamita de Hanoi (las otras regiones de Vietnam pronuncian esos sonidos diferentemente):
| Anterior | Central | Posterior | |
| Cerrada | i | ɯ u | |
| Semi Cerrada | e | o | |
| Intermedia | əː | ||
| Semiabierta | ɛ | ɜ | ɔ |
| Abierta | ɐː/ɐ |
All vowels are unrounded except for three back vowels: /u/, /o/, and /ɔ/. /ɜ/ and /ɐ/ are pronounced very short, shorter than the other vowels. Short /ɐ/ and long /ɐː/ are different phonemic vowels. (The [ː] symbol indicates length.) There seems to be a question of whether /əː/ and /ɜ/ differ in quality and length or in length only. The description above takes the stance that there is also difference in quality (following Thompson (1965)).
The correspondence between the orthography and pronunciation is rather complicated, where a single letter either represents two different monophthongs or both a monophthong and a diphthong, or where the same monophthong is represented by more than one letter:
| Orthography | Phonetic value(s) | Orthography | Phonetic value(s) | |
| a | /ɐː/, /ɐ/, /ɜ/ | o | /ɔ/, /ɐw/, /w/ | |
| ă | /ɐ/ | ô | /o/, /ɜw/, /ɜ/ | |
| â | /ɜ/ | ơ | /əː/, /ɜ/ | |
| e | /ɛ/ | u | /u/, /w/ | |
| ê | /e/, /ɜ/ | ư | /ɯ/ | |
| i | /i/, /j/ | y | /i/, /j/ |
Words that appear to start with a vowel actually start with a glottal stop [ʔ]. This is not represented in the orthography.
Los diptongos y los triptongos
In addition to monophthongs, Vietnamese has many diphthongs and triphthongs. Most of these consist of a vowel followed by /j/ or /w/. (Phonologically speaking, it would be better to consider these as a sequence of a vowel and a consonant.) Below is a chart (Nguyễn 1997) listing the diphthongs & triphthongs of the Hanoi dialect along with the corresponding orthographic symbol(s).
| /ɜ/ Diphthong | Orthography | /j/ Di-/Triphthong | Orthography | /w/ Di-/Triphthong | Orthography | ||
| /iɜ/ | ia, ya, iê, yê | /əːj/ | ơi | /iw/ | iu (ưu) | ||
| /ɯɜ/ | ưa, ươ | /ɜj/ | ây, ê | /ew/ | êu | ||
| /uɜ/ | ua, uô | /ɐːj/ | ai | /ɛw/ | eo | ||
| /ɐj/ | ay, a | /əːw/ | ơu | ||||
| /ɯj/ | ưi | /ɜw/ | âu, ô | ||||
| /uj/ | ui | /ɐːw/ | ao | ||||
| /oj/ | ôi | /ɐw/ | au, o | ||||
| /ɔj/ | oi | /ɯw/ | ưu | ||||
| /ɯɜj/ | ươi | /iɜw/ | iêu, yêu (ươu) | ||||
| /uɜj/ | uôi | /ɯɜw/ | ươu |
/j/ never follows front vowels (/i/, /e/, /ɛ/). /w/ never follows rounded vowels (/u/, /o/, /ɔ/).
Thompson (1965) says that in Hanoi words spelled with "ưu" and "ươu" are pronounced as /iw/ and /iɜw/, respectively, whereas other dialects in the Tonkin delta pronounce them as /ɯw/ and /ɯɜw/. Hanoi speakers that do pronounce these words with /ɯw/ and /ɯɜw/ are using a spelling pronunciation. Nguyễn (1997) does not mention this.
Thompson also notes that in Hanoi the diphthongs, "iê" /iɜ/, "ươ" /ɯɜ/, "uô" /uɜ/, may be pronounced as /ie/, /ɯəː/, and /uo/, respectively (as the spelling suggests), but before /k/ and /ŋ/ these are always pronounced /iɜ/, /ɯɜ/, /uɜ/. Nguyễn just says that they are always pronounced: /iɜ/, /ɯɜ/, /uɜ/.
Los consonantes
Según Hanoi:
| Bilabial | Labio-Velar | Labiodental | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
| STOPS | |||||||
| Voiceless, unaspirated | p | t | c | k | ʔ | ||
| Voiceless, aspirated | tʰ | ||||||
| Voiced, implosive | ɓ | ɗ | |||||
| FRICATIVES | |||||||
| Voiceless | f | s | x | h | |||
| Voiced | v | z | ɣ | ||||
| APPROXIMANT | |||||||
| Central | w | j | |||||
| Lateral | l |
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
| Stops | p/b | t/d, [th]* | t | [ty] | k | |
| Fricatives | f/v | s/z | s/z | Z | x/[Y] | h |
| Nasals | m | n | ñ | N | ||
| Liquids | l |
* /th/ is an unvoiced, aspirated alveolar stop
La gramática
Modèle:Sectstub
El vocabulario
As a result of a thousand years of Chinese domination, much of Vietnamese vocabulary relating to science and politics are derived from Chinese. However, it still retains a basic vocabulary more closely resembling other languages in its language family.
La sistema de escritura
Presently, the written language uses the Vietnamese alphabet (quốc ngữ or "national script"), based on the Latin alphabet. Originally a Romanization of Vietnamese, it was introduced in the 17th century by a French Jesuit missionary named Alexandre de Rhodes (1591-1660), based on works of earlier Portuguese missionaries. With the occupation of the French in the 19th century, it became popular and by the late 20th century virtually all writings were done in quốc ngữ.
Prior to French occupation, the first two Vietnamese writing systems were based on Chinese script:
- the standard ideographic Chinese character set called chữ nho (scholar's characters, 字儒): used to write Literary Chinese
- a complicated variant form known as chữ nôm (southern/vernacular characters, 字喃) with characters not found in the Chinese character set; this system was better adapted to the unique phonetic aspects of Vietnamese which differed from Chinese
The authentic Chinese writing, chữ nho, was in more common usage, whereas chữ nôm was used by members of the educated elite (one needs to be able to read chữ nho in order to read chữ nôm). Both scripts have fallen out of common usage in modern Vietnam, and chữ nôm is near-extinct.
The six tones in Vietnamese are:
| ASCII Symbol | ASCII Name | Unicode Name | Description | Sample Unicode Vowel (e) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ngang | Ngang | no tone (flat) | e | |
| / | Sa('c | Sắc | rising | é |
| ` | Huye^`n | Huyền | falling | è |
| ? | Ho?i | Hỏi | dipping | ẻ |
| ~ | Nga~ | Ngã | dipping (but not as low) | ẽ |
| . | Na(.ng | Nặng | low, glottal | ẹ |
Tone markers are written above the vowel they affect, with the exception of Nặng, where the dot goes below the vowel. For example, the common family name Nguyễn begins with SAMPA /N/ (this sound is difficult for native English speakers to place at the beginning of a word), and is followed by something approximated by the English word "win". The ~ indicates a dipping tone; start somewhat low, go down in pitch, then rise to the end of the word.
Vietnamese, having developed an isolating morphology characteristic of monosyllabic languages, as evidenced by its rich tonal system and syllabic diphthongs and triphthongs meant to differentiate one-syllable words, nonetheless retains many features of a polysyllabic language, as evidenced by the fact that more than half of its vocabulary consists of multi-syllabic and compound words.
Apoyo computadorial
Unicode contains all characters that are necessary to write Vietnamese. There are also a number of codepages designed for representing Vietnamese texts, such as VISCII or CP1258.
Where ASCII must be used, Vietnamese is often typed using the VIQR convention.
Un ejemplo
This text is from the first six lines of Truyện Kiều, an epic poem by the celebrated poet Nguyễn Du, 阮攸 (1765-1820). It was originally written in Nôm (titled 金雲翹), and is widely taught in Vietnam today.
- Trăm năm trong cõi người ta,
- Chữ tài chữ mệnh khéo là ghét nhau.
- Trải qua một cuộc bể dâu,
- Những điều trông thấy mà đau đớn lòng.
- Lạ gì bỉ sắc tư phong,
- Trời xanh quen thói má hồng đánh ghen.
The 224 first verses (in Vietnamese) (to see the next verses: click on câu 225 - 416 etc.)
Tradución en inglés
- Four score and two tens, within that short span of human life,
- Talent and Destiny are poised in bitter conflict.
- Oceans turn to mulberry fields: a desolate scene!
- More gifts, less chance, such is the law of Nature
- And the blue sky is known to be jealous of rosy cheeks.
Enlaces externos
- Wikipedia en vietnamita [vi]
- Wiktionary en vietnamita [vi]
- Wikibooks en vietnamita [vi]
- Wikisource en vietnamita [vi]
- VDict: Vietnamese online dictionaries
- Ethnologue report for Vietnamese
- British Museum Exhibit: Exhibit of classical Vietnamese, including Kim Van Kieu.
- Introduction to Vietnamese: Introduction to Vietnamese for Mandarin speakers.
- Nom Foundation: An organization dedicated to the preservation of the Nom writing.
- Vietnamese Writing System: An overview of the Vietnamese writing system.
- 20 lessons
- Vietnamese & other related languages
Notas al fin
- Here are three linguists' different phonetic descriptions of Vietnamese vowels. Which one is correct? I don't know. You will have to make your own observations. One thing to keep in mind is that Thompson and Han are not native speakers of Vietnamese, but Nguyễn is a native speaker.
- Thompson's (1965) vowels. Thompson says that the vowels [ʌ] (orthographic "â") and [ɐ] (orthographic "ă") are shorter than all of the other vowels, which I have tried to show by adding the half length mark [ˑ] to the other vowels. The vowels below are only the basic vowel phonemes. Thompson gives a very detailed description of each vowel's various allophonic realizations. (Note: one of the external links above has an incorrect vowel chart on this page http://www.de-han.org/vietnam/chuliau/lunsoat/sound/3.htm. The author of this page is following Thompson. Thompson describes one vowel as a "relatively low back unrounded vowel" which is realized as either "lower mid back" or "lower mid back, strongly centralized". The web page author incorrectly lists this vowel as lower low back unrounded /ɑ/.)
| Front | Central | Back | |
| High | iˑ | ɯˑ uˑ | |
| Upper-Mid | eˑ | ɤˑ oˑ | |
| Lower-Mid | ɛˑ | ʌ ɔˑ | |
| Upper-Low | ɐ | ||
| Lower-Low | aˑ |
- Han's (1966) vowels. Han uses acoustic analysis, including spectrograms and format measuring & plotting, to describe the vowels. She states that the primary difference between orthographic "ơ" & "â" and "a" & "ă" is a difference of length (a ratio of 2:1). "ơ" = /ɜː/, "â"= /ɜ/; "a" = /ɐː/, "ă"= /ɐ/. Her format plots also seem show that /ɜː/ may be slightly higher than /ɜ/ in some contexts (but this would be secondary to the main difference of length).
| Front | Central | Back | |
| High | i | ɨ | u |
| Upper-Mid | e | o | |
| Lower-Mid | ɛ | ɜː/ɜ | ɔ |
| Low | ɐː/ɐ |
- Nguyễn's (1997) vowels. I suspect Nguyễn may be simplifying his description & making it more symmetrical (which is good phonology). He says that this is not a "complete grammar" but it is a "descriptive introduction".
| Front | Central | Back | |
| High | i | ɯ u | |
| Mid | e | əː/ə | o |
| Low | a | ɐː/ɐ | ɒ |
Bibliografía
- Han, Mieko S. (1966). Vietnamese vowels. Studies in the phonology of Asian languages IV. Los Angeles: Acoustic Phonetics Research Laboratory, University of Southern California.
- Nguyễn, Ðình-Hoà. (1997). Vietnamese: Tiếng Việt không son phấn. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 1-55619-733-0.
- Thompson, Laurence E. (1965). A Vietnamese grammar. Seattle: University of Washington Press. (Reprinted as A Vietnamese reference grammar. (1991). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1117-8.).